In preparing this post I am selectively looking at commentaries by Gordon Wenham (1979) NICOT and S.H. Kellogg (1891). I would also recommend Tremper Longman III's Immanuel in Our Place: Seeing Christ in Israel's Worship in The Gospel according to the Old Testament series and Vern Poythress' The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses.

Of the Old Testament Gospels, Leviticus is the most neglected book. The Torah are Old Testament Gospels and give us at least two different perspectives on the teaching ministry of Moses (Gen-Num compared to Deuteronomy, which means 'second law') just as the NT gives us four perspectives on the teaching ministry of Jesus. We have seen that the structure of the Pentateuch follows a narrative, poetry, epilogue pattern. Genesis does this. Exodus through Numbers, read together, do this. And Deuteronomy follows this pattern (with an additional poem and epilogue telling us about the death of Moses). But the point for Leviticus is that these laws are part of the narrative begun in Exodus and finished in Numbers (where a poem and epilogue follow). Therefore, the laws of Leviticus are set within a narrative framework.

Specifically, the narrative continues the story of Exodus because at the end of Exodus (Exo 40:34-38) we are told that the cloud covered the tent of meeting and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle. Lev 1:1 begins with the same setting saying, YHWH called Moses from the tent of meeting. It is important that the word is "called" rather than "said" or something similar. The book is about the calling of Israel to be set apart as a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exo 19:6). And the laws set forth in the book set Israel apart as different from the world so that they might fulfill their calling to reach the world.

It is also worth noting that the order of the priest's section in Lev 6-7 (in the Hebrew verse numbering, in English Bibles this begins with Lev 6:8) reflects the order of the offerings done in Exo 29. Moreover, Lev 1-5 was revealed in the tabernacle, Exo 29 and Lev 6-7 are revealed on Sinai. We will see that Lev 1-5 is arranged theologically and thematically, but Lev 6-7 is arranged by order of frequency. In any case, the whole of Lev 1-7 continues to show us that God is very concerned with the way we worship and we know that the way is ultimately Jesus Christ who fulfills these sacrifices and is our priest.

I think that the reason reading Leviticus is so difficult is that we do not try to outline it. Lev 1-7 is about sacrifice laws with Lev 1-5 (Eng. 6:7) giving instructions for common worshipers and Lev 6-7 (Eng 6:8ff) giving instructions for the priests. Using English verse numbers: the order of the offerings in Lev 1-6:7 is the burnt offering (1), the cereal offering (2), the peace offering (3), the purification offering (4:1-5:13), and the reparation offering (5:14-6:7). The order of the offerings in the instructions for the priests is the burnt offering (Lev 6:8-13), the cereal offering (Lev 6:14-18), the priest's cereal offering (Lev 6:19-23), the purification offering (Lev 6:24-30), the reparation offering (Lev 7:1-10), and the peace offering (Lev 7:11-36). This is followed in Wenham's outline, which this paragraph borrows, by two verses of summary (Lev 7:37-38). The order of the priest's instructions is by frequency performed with the peace offering last because it was an optional sacrifice done least often.

Looking at the common worshiper's instructions, it also makes sense to begin with the burnt offering because it was the most common offering, even if it was not first when you are doing more than one kind of offering. For example, you would do a purification offering before the burnt offering (Lev 9). It appears that the order of these offerings is to make them easier to learn/teach and it keeps Moses from being too repetitive because earlier portions are assumed later. The cereal and peace offerings were also food offerings with a pleasing aroma to YHWH, which is why these three are next to each other.

In the first chapter, after two introductory verses, each section on the burnt offering ends "a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 1:9, 13, 17): the first section (Lev 1:3-9) deals with burnt offerings of cattle, the second (Lev 1:10-13) with burnt offerings of sheep or goats and the third section (Lev 1:14-17) with burnt offerings of birds. Cattle are more valuable than sheep or goats, and those herd animals more than birds. This is the reason for the order. For the sake of brevity, the second and third situations assume material included in the first (the longest description).

Burnt offerings had been offered at key times already in the Torah including right after the flood and the Ram instead of Isaac. And Jesus' death, as the new Isaac, was likened to the burnt offering (Eph 5:2, 1 Pet 1:18-19), though once for all (Heb 7:27). All of these offerings under the laity section are those brought by the people. For the burnt offering of cattle or sheep or goats the text required a male without blemish. The laying on of hands (Lev 1:4) conveyed a transfer from the worshipper to that animal being sacrificed. And the burnt offering "shall be accepted for him to make atonement for him" (Lev 1:4). The offering up of the one with whom the Father was "well pleased" was thus the fulfillment of the burnt offering with a pleasing aroma to the LORD (Lev 1:9, 13, 17).

The second chapter of Leviticus covers the grain offerings. The first two sections end saying that the priest shall burn some of the food offering as its memorial portion on the altar, "a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH. But the rest of the grain offering shall be for Aaron and his sons; it is a most holy part of YHWH's food offerings" (Lev 2:2-3, 9-10). The first section deals with raw grain offerings and the second section with unleavened baked grain offerings. The third section deals with general rules about grain offerings and allows for those that are not for a pleasing aroma to YHWH (Lev 2:12) and other firstfruits grain offerings. The common theme in the third section is that they are firstfruits offerings and the section ends "it is a food offering to YHWH" (Lev 2:16). Usually it would follow the burnt offering. Therefore, the priest having pronounced your sins forgiven you would respond with a cereal offering of the produce of your land. The priests relied on these offerings for food and burned a portion as their offering to God.

The third chapter of Leviticus covers the peace offerings. Here again we have three sections. The first ends "it is a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 3:5) and the second ends "a food offering to YHWH" (Lev 3:11) and the third has a longer ending (Lev 3:16-17). The first section covers cattle, the second sheep, and the third goats. Here the offering can be male or female but must still be without blemish. There is again a laying on of hands. Many of the things we said about the burnt offerings apply here, but the peace offering is less important than the burnt offering. One difference not noted here is that the worshiper could enjoy a portion of the offering so that it is a feast for YHWH, the priests, and the worshipers. This is implied because only certain parts of the animal are mentioned for burning on top of the burnt offering. We discover in the priest's section on this offering that it could be for confession, vows, or free-will.

Leviticus 4 and 5, on the purification offering (4:1-5:13) and the reparation offering (5:14-6:7) have a similar structure to each other. Here the value of the animal offered is not important. As Wenham puts it, "Here the most important distinction is between inadvertent sins and sins of omission or deliberate sins. The status of the sinners who bring the offerings is also important" (87). This yields the following table: purification offerings for unintentional sins (Lev 4:1-35), purification offerings for sins of omission (Lev 5:1-13), reparation offerings for unintentional sins (Lev 5:14-19), reparation offerings for intentional sins (Lev 6:1-7). Each section begins, "If anyone sins..." and ends "And the priest shall make atonement for him...and he shall be forgiven...." These sections can be divided further by noting the "if" or in the case of Lev 4:22 "when" clauses. For unintentional sin, blood can be sprinkled in the holy place for the high priest and for the whole congregation, smeared on the main altar for the tribal leader, a worshiper offering a goat, a worshiper offering a lamb. For sins of omission, the offering can be a lamb or goat, birds, or flour. These offerings were less valuable and done less often than the burnt offering. Nevertheless, these offerings show us (1) the problem of unintentional sin, (2) that our sin (intentional or not) makes it impossible for God to be with us without confession of sin, restitution where appropriate (the NT gospels give examples), and a sacrifice, and (3) that the sins of leaders are more serious than the rest of the congregation.

Some notes on the priest's instructions: the fire that they needed to keep going for the burnt offerings (Lev 6:13) was lit by God from heaven (Lev 9:24, cf. 2 Chronicles 7:1); these instructions are detailed as to what portions the priest could eat, if any, and what portions they tithed to God; detailed about how long they had to eat it; and most of this section (by contrast to Lev 1-6:7) is to be spoken to Aaron and his sons except the two asides about the peace offerings starting with Lev 7:22 and 7:28. Remember that portions of the peace offerings could be eaten by the common worshiper bringing it.

Kellogg reflects,

Of what use can the book of Leviticus be to believers now? We answer, first, that it is to us, just as much as to ancient Israel, a revelation of the character of God. It is even a clearer revelation of God's character to us than to them ; for Christ has come as the Fulfiller, and thus the Interpreter, of the law. And God has not changed. He is still exactly what He was when He called to Moses out of the tent of meeting or spoke to him at Mount Sinai. He is just as holy as then ; just as intolerant of sin as then ; just as merciful to the penitent sinner who presents in faith the appointed blood of atonement, as He was then (24-25).

Labels: burnt offering, cereal offering, exodus, gospel genre, grain offering, law, leviticus, peace offering, priest, purification offering, reparation offering, sacrifice

The trip to Sinai starts off with the complaining continuing. We saw the theme of grumbling before the salvation in the Sea of Reeds/Extinction and here we see it again. It is important that it is directed at God and His anointed (Moses) because you will see the same thing happened to His anointed one (Jesus). It all began back when Moses killed the Egyptian and tried to break up a fight amongst the Hebrews. But that grumbling response of the Hebrews was in stark contrast to the reception that Moses had from Jethro's daughters when he saved them (Exodus 2:11-20). In this section we will see Jethro again. This time his reception is in contrast to the grumbling nation of Israel but even more in contrast to the Amalekites. Amalek was the son of Esau's concubine (see our discussion of Genesis 36:12).

The verse after the Song of Miriam mentions that Israel had gone for three days without water in the desert (Exo 15:22). When they finally found water it was bitter (Exo 15:23). So the people grumbled against Moses (Exo 15:24). God turned the bitter water into sweet water. God had Moses throw a log into the water and then the water became sweet (Exo 15:25). This is a picture of the gospel movement from death to life. It is the movement from diseased to healed. The LORD tested them (Exo 15:25). He tells them that if they listen to Him (literally 'listen to the voice of,' which is an idiom for obey) then he will not visit them with the diseases he brought on Egypt (Exo 15:26). Thus if they disobey the plagues will fall upon Israel. This eventually happened and ultimately happened for Christ.

To summarize -- grumbling about water, God tested them.

Then theme of grumbling continues as the word tells us, "And the whole congregation of the people of Israel grumbled against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness" and they accused Moses and Aaron of bringing them into the wilderness to starve when they were full back in Egypt (Exo 16:2-3). They have a selective memory.

And the LORD tested them to see "if they will walk in [His] law or not" with "bread from heaven" (Exo 16:4). On the sixth day they got a double portion but the first five days of the week they would get a day's portion. Since they have accused Moses and Aaron of brining them into the wilderness to starve, Moses tells them that this bread from heaven will show that the LORD brought them out of Egypt and into the wilderness. Moses tells them that they have been grumbling against the LORD. He says, "For what are we, that you grumble against us?" (Exo 16:7). Meat in the evening and bread in the morning will show them that grumbling against Moses and Aaron is really grumbling against the LORD (Exo 16:8). And they got quail in the evening and bread from heaven in the morning. They called the bread from heaven "manna" meaning, "What is it?" because they did not know what it was (Exo 16:15).

The manna was a test because when they tried to keep some left overs they bred worms and stank (Exo 16:20). God was training them to trust Him for their daily bread. And the double portion on the sixth day did keep for the seventh day without going bad so that they could keep Sabbath. It is instructive that they were required to keep Sabbath before the giving of the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments was a summary of the law from creation. But that first Sabbath after the Exodus Event they went and tried to gather manna and the LORD said, "How long will you refuse to keep my commandments and my laws?" (Exo 16:28). It is significant that the manna tasted sweet like wafers made with honey because the Promised Land was a land flowing with milk and honey. Thus the manna was a reminder to them of where they were going and of God turning the bitter water sweet. And they kept some manna as a reminder to all generations.

To summarize -- grumbling about food (complaint that they were brought into the wilderness to starve), God tested them.

The next chapter begins with the same grumbling: "the people quarreled with Moses" about water to drink (Exo 17:2). And they again accused him of bringing them into the wilderness to kill them -- this time with thirst. Moses asks them "Why do you test the LORD?" (Exo 17:2). Here Moses brings water from the rock by striking the rock where the LORD was standing.

To summarize -- grumbling about water again (complaint that they were brought into the wilderness to die of thirst), Israel tested God (Exo 17:2 and 17:7).

This is something we see in the gospels as Satan and then the elders and chief priests, etc., all tested Jesus. It is instructive that Moses notes that the people are ready to stone him (Exo 17:4). And because the wilderness wandering began and ended with water coming from a rock (see Numbers) the tradition arose that the rock followed them in the wilderness. Paul tells us, "the Rock was Christ" (1 Cor 10:4). This is not a stretch since we call God our Rock all of the time. Paul says that these examples were written down for us "for our instruction, on whom the end of the ages has come" (1 Cor 10:11). The lesson is that we should not grumble in our wilderness wandering but know "God is faithful, and he will not let you be tempted beyond your ability, but with the temptation he will also provide the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it (1 Cor 10:13). And this Paul ties into idolatry and the Lord's Supper. We are in the wilderness with one big difference -- we are not under God's wrath (compare Psalm 95 and the quote of Psalm 95:7ff in Hebrews 3:7ff).

The other part of this section shows us the contrast between the Amalekites and Jethro. In Exo 17:8, the Amalekites came and attacked but in Exo 18:5-7 Jethro comes and greets. In both Exo 17:9 and 18:25 men are chosen for a specific task. In Exo 17:12, Moses sits on a stone and in Exo 18:13 he sits to judge. Both activities are said to commence on the next day and last all day until evening (Exo 17:12; 18:13-14). And in both Exo 17:12 and 18:18 Moses is said to be tired, with help provided in each instance. See Enns commentary, 367).

The judgment of the LORD on the Amalekites is a total ban -- "Write this as a memorial in a book and recite it in the ears of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the memory of Amalek from under heaven" (Exo 17:14). See our comments on Genesis 36:12. Jethro blessed the LORD and showed that he had learned the lesson of the plagues and Exodus event saying, "Now I know that the LORD is greater than all gods" (Exo 18:11).

At this point Moses had to tell the people the law of God and how it applied to particular situations, he was deciding every case brought before him and Jethro saw that he would get burnt out quickly. So Jethro wisely suggested this: "warn them about the statutes and the laws, and make them know the way in which they must walk and what they must do" and then appoint judges (who "hate a bribe") to decide the easier cases (Exo 18:20-21). This is the climax of the transition to the giving of the law before they arrive at Sinai. The theme of testing Israel has carried the idea throughout this section.

Labels: amalekites, exodus, grumbling, jethro, law, manna, plagues, salvation

Genesis began with a prologue and then consisted of ten books. The larger structure was one of prologue, narrative, poetry, epilogue. Exodus is not nearly as elaborate in structure. The organizational strategy is best understood thematically: salvation, law, and worship. The section on the salvation of the Israelites from the land of Egypt, the house of slavery is Exodus 1:1-15:21. The section on the law begins with 15:22 and continues through the end of chapter 24. The rest of the book is the section on tabernacle worship.

Exodus begins with a conjunction. The purpose of a conjunction (usually translated "and" in English even when a more specific relationship between the clauses is obvious) is to connect what follows with what came before. Exodus is continuing the story of Book Ten of Genesis. It is not continuing the poetry or the epilogue as much as it is continuing the narrative of Book Ten. Thus the first six Hebrew words of the book are a direct quote from the narrative. More specifically they quote the second telling of the move of Jacob and his family to Egypt in Genesis 46:1-27. The second telling begins with 46:8. "And these are the names of the sons of Israel, the ones who came toward Egypt" (my rough translation). Exodus begins with these identical words and summarizes the rest. Exodus, for example, lists the sons rather than giving the exhaustive list of the sons and their descendants. Both mention that the descendants numbered seventy (seven times ten) and that Joseph was already in Egypt. This is a clear case of recapitulation. Here it serves to tie the entire book of Exodus as a continuation of the narrative of Book Ten of Genesis.

Even though Exodus reports that Joseph and all his brothers and their generation had died, it does not give us another heading like each of the books in Genesis, "These are the generations of..." Instead, the new thing God would do begins with the New Testament Torah: "The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham" (Matt 1:1). This is the title of the Book of Matthew, not just the genealogy that follows. "The book of the genealogy of" is just another way of translating the Genesis book titles. The gospels are the same kind of genre as the Old Testament Torah books and there are many connections between Exodus and Matthew. Future posts will mention some of them. This difference between the two is very instructive as well. Exodus is highlighting continuity between the story of Genesis and the present circumstances.

Furthermore, the prologue of Genesis (Genesis 1:1-2:3)is the prologue of the entire Torah. So it should not surprise us, especially given how Exodus is a continuation of the Genesis narrative, that there are multiple connections between Exodus and Genesis 1. The first such connection is in Exodus 1:7, which Peter Enns translates, "The Israelites became fruitful and swarmed; they increased in number and became exceedingly strong" (NIVAC on Exodus, 41). The word choice of swarmed is instructive because it can be found in Gen 1:21 and 8:17 for animals to fulfill their creation mandates. The creation mandate for humanity in the image of God (1:28) is being fulfilled by the Israelites. Creation and salvation (new creation) are interrelated in Exodus. Future posts will mention many of these connections to Genesis 1.

Looking backwards to creation points us forwards to the new creation Jesus inaugurates with His resurrection. Looking forward to the Gospel of Matthew, points us forward to the way Jesus brings about a greater salvation than the exodus. It is instructive then that the transfiguration is a discussion with Moses (representing the Torah) and Elijah (representing the prophets). Moses was there at the first exodus. The prophets pointed us forward to a second exodus. And the content of their discussion with Jesus is "his exodus, which he was about to accomplish at Jerusalem" (Luke 9:31). Thus we will be looking at how the Book of Exodus points to the climax of salvation through Jesus Christ. Once you see how to do this with Exodus you should go back and do this with Genesis too.

Labels: creation, creation mandate, exodus, Genesis, Genesis 1, law, matthew, recapitulation, salvation, tabernacle, torah, worship