In preparing this post I am selectively looking at commentaries by Gordon Wenham (1979) NICOT and S.H. Kellogg (1891). I would also recommend Tremper Longman III's Immanuel in Our Place: Seeing Christ in Israel's Worship in The Gospel according to the Old Testament series and Vern Poythress' The Shadow of Christ in the Law of Moses.

Of the Old Testament Gospels, Leviticus is the most neglected book. The Torah are Old Testament Gospels and give us at least two different perspectives on the teaching ministry of Moses (Gen-Num compared to Deuteronomy, which means 'second law') just as the NT gives us four perspectives on the teaching ministry of Jesus. We have seen that the structure of the Pentateuch follows a narrative, poetry, epilogue pattern. Genesis does this. Exodus through Numbers, read together, do this. And Deuteronomy follows this pattern (with an additional poem and epilogue telling us about the death of Moses). But the point for Leviticus is that these laws are part of the narrative begun in Exodus and finished in Numbers (where a poem and epilogue follow). Therefore, the laws of Leviticus are set within a narrative framework.

Specifically, the narrative continues the story of Exodus because at the end of Exodus (Exo 40:34-38) we are told that the cloud covered the tent of meeting and the glory of YHWH filled the tabernacle. Lev 1:1 begins with the same setting saying, YHWH called Moses from the tent of meeting. It is important that the word is "called" rather than "said" or something similar. The book is about the calling of Israel to be set apart as a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exo 19:6). And the laws set forth in the book set Israel apart as different from the world so that they might fulfill their calling to reach the world.

It is also worth noting that the order of the priest's section in Lev 6-7 (in the Hebrew verse numbering, in English Bibles this begins with Lev 6:8) reflects the order of the offerings done in Exo 29. Moreover, Lev 1-5 was revealed in the tabernacle, Exo 29 and Lev 6-7 are revealed on Sinai. We will see that Lev 1-5 is arranged theologically and thematically, but Lev 6-7 is arranged by order of frequency. In any case, the whole of Lev 1-7 continues to show us that God is very concerned with the way we worship and we know that the way is ultimately Jesus Christ who fulfills these sacrifices and is our priest.

I think that the reason reading Leviticus is so difficult is that we do not try to outline it. Lev 1-7 is about sacrifice laws with Lev 1-5 (Eng. 6:7) giving instructions for common worshipers and Lev 6-7 (Eng 6:8ff) giving instructions for the priests. Using English verse numbers: the order of the offerings in Lev 1-6:7 is the burnt offering (1), the cereal offering (2), the peace offering (3), the purification offering (4:1-5:13), and the reparation offering (5:14-6:7). The order of the offerings in the instructions for the priests is the burnt offering (Lev 6:8-13), the cereal offering (Lev 6:14-18), the priest's cereal offering (Lev 6:19-23), the purification offering (Lev 6:24-30), the reparation offering (Lev 7:1-10), and the peace offering (Lev 7:11-36). This is followed in Wenham's outline, which this paragraph borrows, by two verses of summary (Lev 7:37-38). The order of the priest's instructions is by frequency performed with the peace offering last because it was an optional sacrifice done least often.

Looking at the common worshiper's instructions, it also makes sense to begin with the burnt offering because it was the most common offering, even if it was not first when you are doing more than one kind of offering. For example, you would do a purification offering before the burnt offering (Lev 9). It appears that the order of these offerings is to make them easier to learn/teach and it keeps Moses from being too repetitive because earlier portions are assumed later. The cereal and peace offerings were also food offerings with a pleasing aroma to YHWH, which is why these three are next to each other.

In the first chapter, after two introductory verses, each section on the burnt offering ends "a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 1:9, 13, 17): the first section (Lev 1:3-9) deals with burnt offerings of cattle, the second (Lev 1:10-13) with burnt offerings of sheep or goats and the third section (Lev 1:14-17) with burnt offerings of birds. Cattle are more valuable than sheep or goats, and those herd animals more than birds. This is the reason for the order. For the sake of brevity, the second and third situations assume material included in the first (the longest description).

Burnt offerings had been offered at key times already in the Torah including right after the flood and the Ram instead of Isaac. And Jesus' death, as the new Isaac, was likened to the burnt offering (Eph 5:2, 1 Pet 1:18-19), though once for all (Heb 7:27). All of these offerings under the laity section are those brought by the people. For the burnt offering of cattle or sheep or goats the text required a male without blemish. The laying on of hands (Lev 1:4) conveyed a transfer from the worshipper to that animal being sacrificed. And the burnt offering "shall be accepted for him to make atonement for him" (Lev 1:4). The offering up of the one with whom the Father was "well pleased" was thus the fulfillment of the burnt offering with a pleasing aroma to the LORD (Lev 1:9, 13, 17).

The second chapter of Leviticus covers the grain offerings. The first two sections end saying that the priest shall burn some of the food offering as its memorial portion on the altar, "a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH. But the rest of the grain offering shall be for Aaron and his sons; it is a most holy part of YHWH's food offerings" (Lev 2:2-3, 9-10). The first section deals with raw grain offerings and the second section with unleavened baked grain offerings. The third section deals with general rules about grain offerings and allows for those that are not for a pleasing aroma to YHWH (Lev 2:12) and other firstfruits grain offerings. The common theme in the third section is that they are firstfruits offerings and the section ends "it is a food offering to YHWH" (Lev 2:16). Usually it would follow the burnt offering. Therefore, the priest having pronounced your sins forgiven you would respond with a cereal offering of the produce of your land. The priests relied on these offerings for food and burned a portion as their offering to God.

The third chapter of Leviticus covers the peace offerings. Here again we have three sections. The first ends "it is a food offering with a pleasing aroma to YHWH" (Lev 3:5) and the second ends "a food offering to YHWH" (Lev 3:11) and the third has a longer ending (Lev 3:16-17). The first section covers cattle, the second sheep, and the third goats. Here the offering can be male or female but must still be without blemish. There is again a laying on of hands. Many of the things we said about the burnt offerings apply here, but the peace offering is less important than the burnt offering. One difference not noted here is that the worshiper could enjoy a portion of the offering so that it is a feast for YHWH, the priests, and the worshipers. This is implied because only certain parts of the animal are mentioned for burning on top of the burnt offering. We discover in the priest's section on this offering that it could be for confession, vows, or free-will.

Leviticus 4 and 5, on the purification offering (4:1-5:13) and the reparation offering (5:14-6:7) have a similar structure to each other. Here the value of the animal offered is not important. As Wenham puts it, "Here the most important distinction is between inadvertent sins and sins of omission or deliberate sins. The status of the sinners who bring the offerings is also important" (87). This yields the following table: purification offerings for unintentional sins (Lev 4:1-35), purification offerings for sins of omission (Lev 5:1-13), reparation offerings for unintentional sins (Lev 5:14-19), reparation offerings for intentional sins (Lev 6:1-7). Each section begins, "If anyone sins..." and ends "And the priest shall make atonement for him...and he shall be forgiven...." These sections can be divided further by noting the "if" or in the case of Lev 4:22 "when" clauses. For unintentional sin, blood can be sprinkled in the holy place for the high priest and for the whole congregation, smeared on the main altar for the tribal leader, a worshiper offering a goat, a worshiper offering a lamb. For sins of omission, the offering can be a lamb or goat, birds, or flour. These offerings were less valuable and done less often than the burnt offering. Nevertheless, these offerings show us (1) the problem of unintentional sin, (2) that our sin (intentional or not) makes it impossible for God to be with us without confession of sin, restitution where appropriate (the NT gospels give examples), and a sacrifice, and (3) that the sins of leaders are more serious than the rest of the congregation.

Some notes on the priest's instructions: the fire that they needed to keep going for the burnt offerings (Lev 6:13) was lit by God from heaven (Lev 9:24, cf. 2 Chronicles 7:1); these instructions are detailed as to what portions the priest could eat, if any, and what portions they tithed to God; detailed about how long they had to eat it; and most of this section (by contrast to Lev 1-6:7) is to be spoken to Aaron and his sons except the two asides about the peace offerings starting with Lev 7:22 and 7:28. Remember that portions of the peace offerings could be eaten by the common worshiper bringing it.

Kellogg reflects,

Of what use can the book of Leviticus be to believers now? We answer, first, that it is to us, just as much as to ancient Israel, a revelation of the character of God. It is even a clearer revelation of God's character to us than to them ; for Christ has come as the Fulfiller, and thus the Interpreter, of the law. And God has not changed. He is still exactly what He was when He called to Moses out of the tent of meeting or spoke to him at Mount Sinai. He is just as holy as then ; just as intolerant of sin as then ; just as merciful to the penitent sinner who presents in faith the appointed blood of atonement, as He was then (24-25).

Labels: burnt offering, cereal offering, exodus, gospel genre, grain offering, law, leviticus, peace offering, priest, purification offering, reparation offering, sacrifice

The Second Commandment is the focus of the ark, tabernacle, golden calf, tabernacle ark narrative in Exodus. Note the chiasm puts the text on the golden calf (Exo 32-34) at the center, which is why we are addressing it separately for emphasis. That the building of the tabernacle and ark begins after this false worship is a demonstration of God's grace and mercy. These central chapters tell us of Israel's rebellion against the authority of God, the mediation of Moses for the people, and the restoration of the people.

The Heidelberg Catechism says regarding the second commandment: "That we should not represent him or worship him in any other manner than he has commanded in his word" (96). All of our confessions that address the second commandment agree (cf. the Scots Confession, Heidelberg Catechism, Second Helvetic Confession, and the Westminster Standards). Making such images and worshiping using those images are the two things addressed by the commandment. This reflects the wording of the second commandment (as numbered by Reformed theologians): "You shall not make for yourself an idol, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not worship [bow down to] them or serve them" (Exo 20:4-5, NASB).

Keep in mind that this is a summary of a whole category of sins. The underlying issue is whether Israel will worship God the way that He has revealed. And ultimately this points us to Jesus, whom we worship, as the revealed image of God. This is only possible because humanity was made in the image of God -- this is why Jesus could be fully human and fully divine. Nevertheless, the first has more to do with whom we worship and the second with the way we worship. And Jesus is the way.

The people of Israel represented God with a golden calf and worshiped God using that calf. While this distinction may not apply to the masses, the more sophisticated among them might argue (keeping with the culture of the Ancient Near East (ANE)) that the golden calf was not meant to be God but a footstool or throne for God. In other words, God rides the golden calf. Even so, making the golden calf was a sinful act breaking the second commandment. And this was compounded when they used the golden calf in worship. This is a recurring sin in Israel. For example, see the Gideon narrative (Judges 8:22-27). In both situations the people were not attempting to worship a false god. They were attempting to worship the true God in a way he had not revealed.

Translations communicate the serious failure in their effort to worship the true God by calling what they worship "gods" (Exo 32:1, 4, 8, 23, and 31). The word "gods" and the word "God" in the Hebrew are the exact same form. We translate this gods, even though there is only one calf, because of the plural form of other words in the Hebrew clause. However, it is safe to say that the people think they are worshiping YHWH just using this calf instead of waiting for the ark that has not yet been built. Aaron even says, "Tomorrow will be a feast to YHWH" (Exo 32:5). The God who brought them up out of the land of Egypt (Exo 32:4) is now being represented with this calf. In fact, this allusion to the prologue of the Ten Commandments (Exo 20:2) shows us that they are starting their own religion.

It is helpful to compare and contrast true and false religion in Exodus. Instead of the ark, in Exo 32 we have the golden calf. Both were made of gold and both were designed to be the footstool or throne of YHWH God. The difference is that God revealed the pattern for the construction of the ark, whereas the golden calf was man's religion. Instead of the festival to YHWH (Exo 10:9, 12:14, 13:6) the people would be doing after the Exodus event (that is, Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread and also in contrast to the meal with the elders on Mount Sinai), there is a new festival to YHWH initiated by Aaron. Both true and false worship in Exodus shared the same high priest. But when it is true worship Aaron would do what God has revealed, when it is false worship Aaron would act on his own. Instead of the Song of Moses and Miriam there is new singing. In many respects the festival is a parody of the victory celebration after the Exodus event. But the most fundamental difference is the law. Both have the prologue to the Ten Commandments (Exo 20:2, 32:4) but the false religion does not have the commandments. Thus Moses breaks the tablets of the Ten Commandments as a prophetic statement that they are not worthy to have them.

Note that when talking with Moses, God calls the people of Israel "your people" (cf. Exo 32:7). This is similar to Ezekiel 33 (see the sermon blog). And God proposes to make Moses a new Abraham by starting over with Moses (Exo 32:10). But Moses, as a prophet, intercedes for the people by reminding God of His promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Israel (an interesting choice since usually Scripture says, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob) (Exo 32:13) and by reminding God that they are not only Moses' people but they are "your people" (Exo 32:11ff). The reminder refers also to the reputation/name of YHWH (Exo 32:12). And God relented -- He changed His mind. Prayer changes things. Moses is finally excelling as a mediator, but still shows us our need for Jesus who is the perfect mediator.

And Moses comes down and gets Joshua, who is unaware of what is going on in the camp, and they went into the camp and destroyed the idol and made the people of Israel drink the powder left over from it. Moses confronted Aaron about it. Aaron had been confronted by an angry mob to begin the chapter (Exo 32:1) and now he appeals to that (Exo 32:21ff). His answer about throwing the gold into the fire and out came the golden calf directly contradicts what the text earlier said Aaron did (Exo 32: 4, 24). But nonetheless the Levites were the only ones who sided with Moses and YHWH (Exo 32:26) and slaughtered three thousand of the men of Israel.

And Moses went back up on the mountain and continued his intercession even wishing to be blotted out of the book of life in their place (Exo 32:32ff). And YHWH sent a plague on the people (Exo 32:35). Exodus 33 continues the intercession. The issue is whether Israel would be heaven on earth -- whether God be in their midst (see the previous post). The problem is that God is holy and would consume His people for their sins. But Moses insists that God must go with His people.

The restoration of Israel as the kingdom of priests and a holy nation then begins. Moses gets to see the glory of God (Exo 33:22). Moses gets another two tablets of the Ten Commandments. The covenant is renewed. A couple observations: note Exo 34:17 on the Second Commandment (only mentioning that they "shall not make" and not the other half "shall not worship") and the next verse mentions the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Exo 34:18) and another mentions the Feast of Weeks (Exo 34:22). He wrote on the tablets the words of the covenant, the ten words (Exo 34:28). Here again we see the forty days and nights. The point in all of this is to say that things are back on track in contrast with the golden calf worship episode. And Moses' face shined (Exo 34:29ff). This is part of the image-glory of God. He is being renewed in the image of God (the theme of the image of God therefore covers the entire section of Exo 32-34). Paul would refer to this in 2 Cor 3:7-18.

Thus together with the section we looked at last time we come to the end of Exodus, but structurally we have not yet come to an end to the book. The laws of Leviticus will continue the narrative from here. We have not yet seen the poetry and epilogue.

Labels: ark, exodus, golden calf, idolatry, tabernacle, ten commandments

The content of chapters 25-31 is essentially the same as 35-40 except the order is chiastic. The instructions are for the ark first and then the tabernacle second. But when they are built the tabernacle is first and the ark is second. In any case, it is incredibly important that 35-40 reflects 25-31 because of what happens in Exo 32-34 -- the Golden Calf episode. We should note in the next post how the Golden Calf contrasts with the tabernacle and ark. But for now the basic point is that this section of Scripture is concerned with the Second Commandment. The Second Commandment forbids worship that is not according to the pattern God has revealed in His word and commands that we worship according to the pattern God has revealed in His word. It is very important that Moses has it built exactly right (Exo 25:8-9).

This sanctuary, one of the reasons it is inappropriate to call the place where you worship a church sanctuary (the people are the church sanctuary), is to be a reflection of the heavenly sanctuary (cf. Heb 8:5). The pattern is very important. God initiated the building project and provided the materials, which came from the plunder of Egypt.

The tabernacle has a three part structure for different levels of holiness. The same pattern can be found back in Exo 24:1-18 when we were looking at Mount Sinai. Sinai and the Tabernacle are earthly replicas of the heavenly sanctuary of God. As things get closer to the ark they are more holy and the materials are more expensive (bronze, to silver, to gold, then to fine gold). Also, fewer and fewer people are permitted to enter as you get closer to the ark: any and all can be outside the camp, inside the camp only ritually clean Israelites can come, in the courtyard the laypeople could come to bring ritually clean animals for sacrifice, in the tabernacle only priest and Levites could come, and the high priest could only enter the holy of holies (a superlative -- the holiest place) once a year on the Day of Atonement. Creation itself is a temple/tabernacle: the earth is the footstool of God's cosmic temple/tabernacle. The three fold division is earth, visible heavens, invisible heaven of heavens (thus we are back to seeing connections with Gen 1).

The tabernacle is God's sanctuary on earth. The ark is His throne (cf. Jer 3:16-17) or the footstool of His throne (1 Chron 28:2). In the ark were the stone tablets of the covenant. It was common in the ancient near east (ANE) to have two copies of a covenant. The copies would be deposited in the temple of the gods of the greater king (the suzerain) and the lesser king (his vassal). Since there is only one God and the covenant is between Him and His people, the two copies of the covenant (the Ten Commandments tablets) are put in the tabernacle. The tabernacle (a tent) is at the center of the camp where ordinarily in the ANE the king would put his tent. Therefore, you are meant to connect the role of the Tabernacle with God's rule as King over Israel. It is a picture of heaven on earth -- the world as it should be -- God with us.

The creation of the tabernacle is therefore a re-creation event -- a new creation event. The Spirit is involved in both as creation in Gen 1 is the work of the Spirit of God (Gen 1:2) and those who work on the tabernacle are given the Spirit (Exo 35:31). Also the phrase "YHWH said to Moses" occurs seven times during the instructions (the first six: Exo 25:1, 30:11, 17, 22, 34, 31:1), the last time (Exo 31:12) introducing the instructions for the Sabbath. Moreover, (cf. Exo 39:32, 43) when the work is finished, Moses blesses the people and he inspects the work like God does when God declares the creation good (Exo 39:43). And the tabernacle is set up "on the first day of the first month in the second year" (Exo 40:17, NIV). Remember the first month was changed to reflect the Exodus event (Exo 12:2).

The first microcosmic picture of heaven on earth we have is the Garden of Eden. We should associate the menorah with Eden as its description resembles a tree. It is on fire, which may also mean to remind us of the burning bush. The references to images of cherubim should remind us that they guard the way to the tree of life in the epilogue of Gen 3. The tabernacle is a microcosm of heaven on earth.

As the tabernacle represented God's presence with his people on earth, the incarnation fulfills this Immanuel (God with us) principle. As John 1:14 should be best translated, "And the Word became flesh and tabernacled among us, and we looked at his glory, glory as the only one from the Father, full of grace and truth." And now Jesus is seated at the right hand of God the Father in the heavenly tabernacle. The OT priests ministered in the earthy shadow and copy of the tabernacle of heaven, but Jesus intercedes for us from the seat of power.

And our bodies are tabernacles for the Spirit. We are being clothed with a heavenly sanctuary (2 Cor 5:1-4). This means that our actions should flow out of our identity as holy ground. Our bodies were originally made to replicate the heavenly tabernacle (being made in the image of God). And we see a hint of this recovery of the image glory when Moses transfigured face shines and from the description of Aaron's robes. (The division of the office of mediator into prophet (Moses) and priest (Aaron) was a division of glory. This office, never meant to be separated, is reunited in Jesus). If you want to explore the significance of Aaron's robe, compare it with the tabernacle and recall those things we said about the tabernacle (there are even seven day patterns).

The book of Exodus is about New Creation. It is a creation where the rule of God (the kingdom of Heaven/God) is reestablished -- heaven on earth -- a creation where God and his people can live in harmony forevermore. This is why the book says so much about the building of the tabernacle.

I have simply retyped and reworded an earlier lecture I gave on this material that is not sourced but the teaching here is a combination of Meredith Kline and Peter Enns.

Labels: Aaron's robe, ark, exodus, Genesis 1, glory, God with us, heaven, image of God, mediator, new creation, sabbath, tabernacle, ten commandments